Structures and Properties of Chitin and Chitosan from Extraction and Characterization to Structural Modification and Applications

Authors

nathakamolwan srijunpetch -

Keywords:

Chitin, Chitosan, Degree of deacetylation, Structural modification

Abstract

Chitin and chitosan are polysaccharides with diverse applications in biomaterials, packaging, and environmental technologies. However, variations in their extraction and processing lead to different structures and properties. This narrative review explores the intricate relationships between their structure, extraction methods, characterization techniques, modification strategies, and ultimate applications. We compare biological and chemical extraction routes, including alternative solvents, and discuss methods for evaluating critical properties such as degree of deacetylation, molar mass, purity, and material characteristics. Modification approaches, including crosslinking, grafting, and reactions at amino or hydroxyl groups, are examined with selected experimental conditions and quantitative results. The review highlights that increased modification does not universally enhance all properties; for instance, improved structural stability may concurrently reduce swelling and molecular transport. Therefore, effective material design necessitates aligning structure with intended function and operating conditions, while also differentiating between material-level evidence and demonstrated product performance. Future advancements should prioritize comparable characterization, stringent control of residual substances, batch consistency, testing under realistic conditions, and a comprehensive assessment of resource utilization across the entire processing lifecycle.

Downloads

Download data is not yet available.

References

An, N. T., Thien, D. T., Dong, N. T., & Dung, P. L. (2009). Water-soluble N-carboxymethyl-

chitosan derivatives: Preparation, characteristics and its application. Carbohydrate Polymers, 75(3), 489-497.

ASTM International. (2026). Standard test method for tensile properties of thin plastic sheeting (ASTM D882-18).

ASTM International. (2025a). Standard guide for characterization and testing of chitosan salts as starting materials intended for use in biomedical and tissue-engineered medical product applications (ASTM F2103-18(2025)).

ASTM International. (2025b). Standard test method for determining degree of deacetylation in chitosan salts by proton nuclear magnetic resonance (1H NMR) spectroscopy (ASTM F2260-18(2025)).

ASTM International. (2025c). Standard test method for determining the molar mass of chitosan and chitosan salts by size exclusion chromatography with multi-angle light scattering detection (SEC-MALS) (ASTM F2602-18(2025)).

Brugnerotto, J., Lizardi, J., Goycoolea, F. M., Argüelles-Monal, W., Desbrières, J., & Rinaudo, M. (2001). An infrared investigation in relation with chitin and chitosan characterization. Polymer, 42(8), 3569-3580.

Chang, K. L. B., Tsai, G., Lee, J., & Fu, W. R. (1997). Heterogeneous N-deacetylation of chitin in alkaline solution. Carbohydrate Research, 303(3), 327-332.

Gutiérrez-Ruíz, S. C., Cortes, H., González-Torres, M., Almarhoon, Z. M., Gürer, E. S., Sharifi-Rad, J., & Leyva-Gómez, G. (2024). Optimize the parameters for the synthesis by the ionic gelation technique, purification, and freeze-drying of chitosan-sodium tripolyphosphate nanoparticles for biomedical purposes. Journal of Biological Engineering, 18, 12.

Hiranpattanakul, P., Jongjitpissamai, T., Aungwerojanawit, S., & Tachaboonyakiat, W. (2018). Fabrication of a chitin/chitosan hydrocolloid wound dressing and evaluation of its bioactive properties. Research on Chemical Intermediates, 44(8), 4913–4928.

Kurita, Y., & Isogai, A. (2010). Reductive N-alkylation of chitosan with acetone and levulinic acid in aqueous media. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules, 47(2), 184-189.

Lavertu, M., Xia, Z., Serreqi, A. N., Berrada, M., Rodrigues, A., Wang, D., Buschmann, M. D., & Gupta, A. (2003). A validated 1H NMR method for the determination of the degree of deacetylation of chitosan. Journal of Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Analysis, 32(6), 1149-1158.

Liu, J., Wang, Q., & Wang, A. (2007). Synthesis and characterization of chitosan-g-poly(acrylic acid)/sodium humate superabsorbent. Carbohydrate Polymers, 70(2), 166-173.

Lv, J., Lv, X., Ma, M., Oh, D. H., Jiang, Z., & Fu, X. (2023). Chitin and chitin-based biomaterials: A review of advances in processing and food applications. Carbohydrate Polymers, 299, 120142.

Mao, H. Q., Roy, K., Troung-Le, V. L., Janes, K. A., Lin, K. Y., Wang, Y., August, J. T., & Leong, K. W. (2001). Chitosan-DNA nanoparticles as gene carriers: Synthesis, characterization and transfection efficiency. Journal of Controlled Release, 70(3), 399-421.

No, H. K., Park, N. Y., Lee, S. H., & Meyers, S. P. (2002). Antibacterial activity of chitosans and chitosan oligomers with different molecular weights. International Journal of Food Microbiology, 74(1-2), 65-72.

Poirier, M., & Charlet, G. (2002). Chitin fractionation and characterization in N,N-dimethylacetamide/lithium chloride solvent system. Carbohydrate Polymers, 50(4), 363-370.

Ravi Kumar, M. N. V. (2000). A review of chitin and chitosan applications. Reactive and Functional Polymers, 46(1), 1-27.

Rinaudo, M. (2006). Chitin and chitosan: Properties and applications. Progress in Polymer Science, 31(7), 603-632.

Rinaudo, M., Milas, M., & Dung, P. L. (1993). Characterization of chitosan. Influence of ionic strength and degree of acetylation on chain expansion. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules, 15(5), 281-285.

Saravana, P. S., Ho, T. C., Chae, S. J., Cho, Y. J., Park, J. S., Lee, H. J., & Chun, B. S. (2018). Deep eutectic solvent-based extraction and fabrication of chitin films from crustacean waste. Carbohydrate Polymers, 195, 622-630.

Sieval, A. B., Thanou, M., Kotzé, A. F., Verhoef, J. C., Brussee, J., & Junginger, H. E. (1998). Preparation and NMR characterization of highly substituted N-trimethyl chitosan chloride. Carbohydrate Polymers, 36(2-3), 157-165.

Suchyta, D. J., Soto, R. J., & Schoenfisch, M. H. (2017). Selective monophosphorylation of chitosan via phosphorus oxychloride. Polymer Chemistry, 8(16), 2552-2558.

Thambiliyagodage, C., Jayanetti, M., Mendis, A., Ekanayake, G., Liyanaarachchi, H., & Vigneswaran, S. (2023). Recent advances in chitosan-based applications-A review. Materials, 16(5), 2073.

Thommes, M., Kaneko, K., Neimark, A. V., Olivier, J. P., Rodriguez-Reinoso, F., Rouquerol, J., & Sing, K. S. W. (2015). Physisorption of gases, with special reference to the evaluation of surface area and pore size distribution (IUPAC Technical Report). Pure and Applied Chemistry, 87(9-10), 1051-1069.

Tzereme, A., Christodoulou, E., Kyzas, G. Z., Kostoglou, M., Bikiaris, D. N., & Lambropoulou, D. A. (2019). Chitosan grafted adsorbents for diclofenac pharmaceutical compound removal from single-component aqueous solutions and mixtures. Polymers, 11(3), 497.

Younes, I., & Rinaudo, M. (2015). Chitin and chitosan preparation from marine sources. Structure, properties and applications. Marine Drugs, 13(3), 1133-1174.

Younes, I. , Ghorbel- Bellaaj, O. , Nasri, R. , Chaabouni, M. , Rinaudo, M. , & Nasri, M. ( 2012) .

Chitin and chitosan preparation from shrimp shells using optimized enzymatic

deproteinization. Process Biochemistry, 47(12), 2032-2039.

Zhang, Z., Jin, F., Wu, Z., Jin, J., Li, F., Wang, Y., Wang, Z., Tang, S., Wu, C., & Wang, Y. (2017). O-acylation of chitosan nanofibers by short-chain and long-chain fatty acids. Carbohydrate Polymers, 177, 203-209.