Creative Science

Lipid nanoparticles for mR delivery: from rational design and manufacturing to clinical translation

Jinshi Yu — 2026-04-03

The clinical success of COVID-19 mRNA vaccines established lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) as a leading platform for in vivo RNA delivery, but their therapeutic potential extends far beyond vaccination. This review provides an integrated perspective on LNP-RNA medicines by linking five interconnected dimensions: historical development, RNA payload engineering, LNP design, manufacturing, and clinical translation. We summarize how nucleoside modification, RNA structural optimization, and emerging formats such as circular RNA and self-amplifying RNA have expanded the functional scope of therapeutic payloads. We then examine the design principles of LNPs, with emphasis on ionizable lipids, formulation composition, and microfluidic manufacturing as the basis for reproducible large-scale production. We further distinguish clinically validated applications, including hepatic RNA delivery and intramuscular mRNA vaccination, from newer but less mature directions such as protein replacement, in vivo gene editing, and in vivo CAR-T generation. Importantly, this review highlights the major barriers that now limit broader translation, including extrahepatic targeting, incomplete understanding of protein corona-mediated delivery, weak cross-species predictability, repeat-dosing challenges, and evolving regulatory requirements. Overall, this review defines the key principles and translational challenges that will shape next-generation LNP-RNA therapeutics.

GRAPHICAL ABSTRACT

HIGHLIGHTS

Integrates historical milestones, RNA engineering, LNP design principles, and manufacturing into a unified framework for LNP-RNA therapeutics.
Introduces clinically validated applications and emerging directions including protein replacement, in vivo gene editing, and in vivo CAR-T therapies.
Identifies critical translational barriers limiting broader clinical adoption: extrahepatic targeting, incomplete understanding of structure-activity relationships, weak cross-species predictability, and repeat-dosing challenges.

Green innovation in skincare: harnessing cucumber peel extract and gel base selection for enhanced cleansing mask efficacy

Warongporn Rattanabun — 2026-01-19

This study aimed to develop a cleansing mask incorporating cucumber peel extract by systematically comparing different base gels and surfactant systems. The extraction was performed by ethanol maceration followed by rotary evaporation, yielding a 6.45 ± 0.33% extract rich in phenolic and flavonoid compounds (26.62 ± 0.51 mg GAE g⁻¹ dry extract and 14.96 ± 0.42 mg QE g⁻¹ dry extract) and exhibiting antioxidant activity (DPPH IC₅₀ = 380.67 ± 1.53 µg mL⁻¹; ABTS IC₅₀ = 384.04 ± 1.94 µg mL⁻¹). Simple gel formulas were developed with bases of Hydroxyethyl cellulose, Carbomer SF1 and Aristoflex AVC, later combined with surfactant systems (SLS/CAB or MPE) containing different proportions of cucumber peel extract. The formulations were evaluated for physical properties, sensory attributes, stability, foaming power and microstructure. Carbomer SF1 gel with SLS and CB showed the best sensorial properties and foam quality, whereas Aristoflex AVC exhibited higher viscosity (3106.08 ± 105.83 cP) and stable appearance throughout the study period. Notably, the C1 (MPBE system) generated finer microfoam and superior cleansing efficacy, underscoring the impact of base and surfactant selection on cleansing performance, antioxidant delivery and consumer acceptability, and supporting the potential of agro‑waste–derived extracts for multifunctional cosmetic masks.

GRAPHICAL ABSTRACT

HIGHLIGHTS

Cucumber peel extract (6.45 ± 0.33%) contains rich phenolic (gallic acid equivalent: 26.62 ± 0.51mg GAE g^-1) and flavonoid content (quercetin equivalent :14.96 ± 0.42mg QE g^-1), performs powerful antioxidant activity.
The foam quality, clarity and aesthetic appearance of cleansing masks are accomplished with a combination of 2% Sodium Lauryl Sulfate and 4% Cocamidopropyl betaine in a Carbomer SF1 gel base.
The highest viscosity (3106.08 ± 105.83 cP), the best stability, and long enough duration of use can be also obtained using the Aristoflex AVC gel base (0.5%) which could support for a more long-lasting cosmetic formulations containing cucumber peel extract.

Exploring phytochemicals and antidiabetic property of the hexane extract from Abutilon indicum (L.) Sweet roots

Siriporn Yaisaeng — 2026-02-10

The roots of Abutilon indicum (L.) Sweet were extracted with hexane and subjected to bioassay-guided fractionation to evaluate α-glucosidase inhibitory activity. The hexane extract (RAIH, 0.80% w w^-1) showed potent inhibition (88.06%) at 500 mg mL^-1. Silica gel chromatography localized the activity to fractions RAIH₂–RAIH₄ (93.55–95.19% inhibition). Chromatographic separation of the bioactive fractions afforded four known sterol-type constituents, identified by IR, ¹H NMR, and ¹³C NMR, and compared with previously reported data as β-sitosterol (1), stigmasterol (2), daucosterol (3), and stigmasterol-3-O-β-D-glucoside (4). Compounds 3 and 4 were isolated from A. indicum for the first time. Although compounds 1–4 were not assayed for α-glucosidase inhibitory activity in this study, literature data indicate that sterol glycosides are more potent than free sterols. Molecular docking was performed, exhibiting stronger binding for 3 and 4 than for 1 and 2, consistent with a contributory role of sugar moieties. These findings support further compound-level validation. Therefore, investigating this plant and its chemical constituents may enhance the discovery of antidiabetic agents and related therapeutic leads. Collectively, these findings challenge the prevailing focus on polar phenolics as primary α-glucosidase inhibitors and highlight sterol-rich, non-polar fractions as an underexplored yet promising source of antidiabetic leads. This study provides a conceptual framework for expanding enzyme-based antidiabetic screening toward lipophilic phytochemical classes and supports further compound-level validation.

GRAPHICAL ABSTRACT

HIGHLIGHTS

Bioassay-guided silica gel fractionation localized activity to fractions RAIH₂–RAIH₄ of 93.55–95.19% inhibition at 500 mg/mL.
Daucosterol and stigmasterol-3-O-β-D-glucoside were isolated for the first time from Abutilon indicum (L.)
Molecular docking with yeast α-glucosidase predicted stronger binding for sterol glycosides relative to sterols, supporting the potential role of sugar moieties in enzyme engagement.

Effects of soil properties and heavy metals with a bioactive compound, acteoside, in Acanthus ebracteatus from three different habitats of eastern part of Thailand

Phakawan Kongchantree — 2026-02-12

Acanthus ebracteatus Vahl is a mangrove medicinal plant widely distributed along the coastal regions of Thailand. It is recognized as a rich natural source of acteoside, a phenylethanoid glycoside and is discovered in the anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and hepatoprotective activities. However, the information availability regarding the influence of environmental factors, particularly soil properties and heavy metal accumulation, on acteoside biosynthesis is limited. The aims of this study were to investigate the effects of soil physicochemical characteristics and heavy metal concentrations on acteoside content in A. ebracteatus collected from three distinct habitats in eastern Thailand: Chachoengsao, Chonburi, and Rayong. Soil samples were analyzed for pH, organic matter, and macronutrient contents, including nitrogen (N), and phosphorus (P), as well as concentrations of As, Cd, Hg, and Pb using inductively coupled plasma – optical emission spectrometer (ICP–OES). Acteoside levels in methanolic leaf extracts were quantified by high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with diode-array detection (HPLC-DAD). Correlations between soil parameters and acteoside content were evaluated. Based on our searching literature found that an association between soil heavy metal levels and acteoside concentration in A. ebracteatus is demonstrated. The results revealed significant variations in soil composition among the sampling sites. The highest acteoside accumulation was observed in plants from the Chachoengsao habitat, which was characterized by near-neutral soil pH (7.1 ± 0.2) and relatively elevated concentrations of Hg (0.06 ± 0.00 mg kg⁻¹) and Pb (20.07 ± 0.81 mg kg⁻¹). A strong positive correlation was identified between acteoside content and soil Hg and Pb concentrations. These findings indicated that soil mineral composition and heavy metal availability played a crucial role in modulating acteoside biosynthesis in A. ebracteatus. The results provide valuable insights for phytochemical quality control, environmental monitoring, and the sustainable cultivation of this medicinal plant within the Eastern Economic Corridor (EEC) of Thailand.

GRAPHICAL ABSTRACT

HIGHLIGHTS

Soil physicochemical properties and heavy metal levels significantly influence acteoside accumulation in Acanthus ebracteatus across different eastern Thai habitats.
Plants from Chachoengsao exhibited the highest acteoside content, strongly correlated with near-neutral soil pH and elevated Hg and Pb concentrations.
These findings provide important insights for phytochemical quality control and support sustainable cultivation strategies for medicinal mangrove plants in Thailand’s Eastern Economic Corridor.

AI-driven multi-response optimization of perforated Ti-6Al-4V sheets via two-point incremental forming using an ANN–GA-based approach

Apisit Keawchaloon — 2026-02-19

This study investigates two-point incremental forming (TPIF) of perforated Ti-6Al-4V sheets using an integrated experimental–computational framework to optimize surface hardness and formability. Room-temperature TPIF of mill-annealed Grade 5 Ti-6Al-4V sheets (100 × 100 × 1 mm) was performed under dry conditions. Sheets with 2 mm holes at pitches of 6, 8, and 10 mm were formed following a Taguchi L9 design. Holes were produced by precision CNC drilling, ensuring clean edges without a heat-affected zone and preserving the base microstructure. Hole pitch (Hp), incremental step depth (ISD), and feed rate (Fr) were evaluated using Vickers hardness (HV) and forming depth (FD). Hole pitch was the dominant factor, contributing 59.1% to hardness and 69.2% to forming depth. An ANN (3–5–2) accurately predicted both responses (RMSE = 1.37 for HV; 0.0458 for FD) and was coupled with GA for multi-response optimization. The ANN–GA converged within 1000 generations and identified the optimum (Hp = 10 mm, ISD = 0.4 mm, Fr = 0.75 mm·min^-1 , yielding HV and FD values of 341 and 9.92 mm, respectively. Validation experiments at the optimal condition showed <2% deviation from predictions. Improved performance was attributed to strain redistribution and localized work hardening around perforations. The novelty of this work lies in integrating perforation-assisted deformation mechanics with AI-driven multi-response optimization for a difficult-to-form titanium alloy. This approach offers a practical pathway for lightweight, high-strength titanium component design in aerospace, biomedical, and EV applications.

GRAPHICAL ABSTRACT

HIGHLIGHTS

A hybrid ANN–GA framework was developed to model and optimize the TPIF process of perforated Ti-6Al-4V sheets.
The proposed model accurately predicted hardness and forming depth, showing strong agreement with experimental results.
ANN–GA optimization identified optimal process parameters that simultaneously enhanced formability and surface hardness.
The data-driven approach supports smart manufacturing and Industry 4.0 applications for advanced titanium sheet forming.

Comparative antioxidant and antibacterial activities of ethanol extract from different parts of Syzygium gratum

Amornrassamee Jinnarak — 2026-03-02

Herbal extracts are widely recognized as valuable sources of bioactive compounds with antioxidant and antimicrobial properties. However, variations in biological activity among different plant parts remain insufficiently explored for many medicinal plants. This study aimed to comparatively evaluate the antioxidant and antimicrobial activities of extracts obtained from four different parts including young leaves (YL), mature leaves (ML), branches (BR), and twigs (TW) of Syzygium gratum. Plant materials were extracted using ethanol with maceration method, and antioxidant activity was determined through total phenolic content (TPC) analysis along with the 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging assay, while antibacterial activity was evaluated against two selected microorganisms, E. coli, S. aureus using disc diffusion method. Among the tested extracts, the extract from young leaves exhibited the strongest antioxidant capacity with 18.01±2.25 mg gallic acid equivalents per gram of dried weight for TPC and 67.05% for DPPH assay. In addition, the extract showed the most antimicrobial effects with 10.8±0.1 and 11.1±0.1 mm for E. coli and S. aureus, respectively. The YL extract was further investigated the chemical constituents by using GC–MS technique, and the result revealed that the four major constituents were Dihydrooroxylin A, neophytadiene, tetrapentacontane, and g-tocopherol. The observed data was likely associated with major GC–MS identification constituents, including Dihydrooroxylin A and γ–tocopherol, which have been previously reported to exhibit antioxidant and antimicrobial effects. In addition, these data highlighted the importance of plant–part selection especially for YL extract in maximizing biological activity and supported the potential application of S. gratum as a natural source of antioxidant and antimicrobial agents.

GRAPHICAL ABSTRACT

HIGHLIGHTS

Ethanol extracts obtained from different parts of Syzygium gratum exhibited moderate antioxidant and antibacterial activities.
Extracts from young leaves showed higher biological activities comparing with other parts, in agreement with their phenolic content and the presence of bioactive constituents detected by GC–MS analysis.
These results indicate the relevance of plant-part selection for the rational and sustainable utilization of Syzygium gratum in environmentally related chemical applications.

Spatio-temporal clustering of respiratory syncytial virus in Sakon Nakhon Province, Thailand, across the COVID-19 pandemic: A retrospective space–time scan analysis, 2019–2024

Kulwadee Suwannatrai — 2026-03-10

Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) is a leading cause of acute respiratory infections in young children and older adults. The COVID-19 pandemic and the implementation of non-pharmaceutical interventions (NPIs) profoundly altered the transmission dynamics of RSV worldwide. However, evidence describing how RSV spatio-temporal patterns evolved across pandemic-related phases at fine geographic resolution remains limited in Thailand. We conducted a retrospective spatio-temporal cluster analysis of RSV cases reported in Sakon Nakhon Province, northeastern Thailand, between January 2019 and December 2024. Monthly RSV case counts from 125 sub-districts were analyzed using Kulldorff’s space–time scan statistic implemented in SaTScan, applying a space–time permutation model. The analysis was structured into three epidemiological phases: the pre-pandemic (January 2019–March 2020), NPI-associated suppression (April 2020–December 2021), and the post-pandemic resurgence (January 2022–December 2024). Nineteen space–time clusters were identified, eleven of which were statistically significant (p < 0.05). During the pre-pandemic phase, the primary cluster occurred between February 2019 and August 2020, encompassing nine sub-districts and exhibiting more than a sixfold excess of cases (relative risk [RR] = 6.08). Only one moderate-intensity cluster was detected during the suppression phase (RR = 2.71), reflecting markedly reduced RSV activity. Following relaxation of NPIs, RSV transmission rebounded sharply, with a large primary cluster between March and May 2022 involving 15 sub-districts and 1,059 cases (RR = 1.98), followed by multiple significant clusters persisting through 2024. RSV transmission in Sakon Nakhon Province showed marked spatio-temporal shifts across the COVID-19 pandemic, transitioning from localized pre-pandemic clustering to suppressed circulation during NPIs and subsequent widespread resurgence. These findings highlight the influence of pandemic-related interventions on RSV epidemiology and the importance of sub-district–level surveillance for preparedness and response in the post-pandemic era.

GRAPHICAL ABSTRACT

HIGHLIGHTS

This study provides the first sub-district–level spatio-temporal analysis of RSV transmission in Thailand across the COVID-19 pandemic.
Space–time scan statistics revealed a clear shift from localized pre-pandemic RSV clusters to widespread post-pandemic resurgence.
RSV activity was markedly suppressed during COVID-19 non-pharmaceutical interventions, followed by atypical and prolonged outbreaks after restrictions were lifted.
High-risk locations and outbreak windows were identified that were not apparent from province-wide surveillance alone.
Fine-scale spatio-temporal methods offer actionable insights to strengthen early warning systems and hospital preparedness for RSV in the post-pandemic era.

Knowledge, attitudes, and practices of source municipal solid waste management in rural and urban communities of Chachoengsao province, Thailand

Sureeporn Thummikkaphong — 2026-03-18

Municipal solid waste is generated in all human communities, and individual practices such as purchasing decisions, daily habits, and household municipal solid waste management practices directly influence its volume. In 2025, urban communities generated 32,532.92 tons of municipal solid waste annually, compared with 2,325.74 tons in rural communities. Although urban areas produce more municipal solid waste due to population density and consumption patterns, rural areas often lack effective municipal solid waste management systems. This study employed a comparative cross-sectional design to assess knowledge, attitudes, and household municipal solid waste management practices among residents in urban and rural communities. A total of 124 participants were recruited, with 62 individuals from each area. The sample size was calculated using Cohen’s effect size method with G*Power software. The inclusion criteria were individuals aged 18 years and above who were residing in Sanam Chai Khet District and Mueang Chachoengsao District, Chachoengsao Province. Data were collected using a structured questionnaire covering knowledge, attitudes, and municipal solid waste management practices. Descriptive statistics, including frequency, percentage, mean, and standard deviation, were used for analysis. The results showed that urban participants had a moderate level of knowledge (66.6%), while rural participants had a low level of knowledge (48.06%). Attitudes toward household municipal solid waste management were moderate in both groups, with mean scores of 2.95 ± 0.69 among urban residents and 2.60 ± 0.61 among rural residents. Regarding practices, urban participants demonstrated moderate household municipal solid waste management practices (2.89 ± 0.61), whereas rural residents showed inadequate practices (2.33 ± 0.71). These results highlight the necessity of focused interventions to promote acceptable home municipal solid waste management practices and increase understanding, especially in rural populations. In both urban and rural regions, bolstering community-based education and waste management initiatives may assist lower waste production and lessen environmental effects.

GRAPHICAL ABSTRACT

HIGHLIGHTS

This study compares municipal solid waste management practices in urban and rural communities.
Urban residents showed higher knowledge levels than rural residents.
Attitudes toward household solid waste management were moderate in both settings.

Influence of seasonal variation on the food safety and shelf-life of homemade dog food from fresh markets in Mueang District, Sakon Nakhon Province

Jakkapat Prachachit — 2026-03-18

Home-cooked dog food sold in fresh markets is an alternative for dog owners seeking to avoid commercial dried or canned pet food. Although it is typically boiled and subjected to high heat during preparation, improper storage may lead to spoilage. This study aimed to assess the levels of bacteria, and to determine whether these foods remain microbiologically safe for canine consumption after refrigerated storage, especially when purchased in large quantities, across different seasons and from three fresh market vendors. The study found that all three vendors used leftovers and animal by-products from human consumption, such as the lungs, trachea, bones, blood, and chicken carcasses. During the first day of purchase, the physical characteristics and microbiological quality of the food were acceptable for canine consumption. However, by days 3 and 7 of refrigerated storage, food quality such as smell and texture had declined. Notably, in the rainy and hot seasons, when ambient temperatures were higher, the microbial quality deteriorated significantly, making food unsuitable for dogs. From Day 3 the total microbial counts exceeded the acceptable limit of 1 × 10⁶ CFU g^-1 for 2 of 3 vendors (6.05±0.03 and 7.12±0.01) in the summer and all vendors in the rainy season (7.32±0.03, 6.25±0.01 and 7.12±0.01), which posed health risks and might lead to gastrointestinal infections. The pathogenic bacteria which found in this study are Escherichia coli and coliform bacteria. Health risks are not limited to dogs; pet owners who prepare and handle this food directly may also be exposed to potential pathogens. This study recommends that dog owners purchase only a daily portion of this type of food to reduce spoilage risks, particularly given Thailand’s predominantly warm climate.

GRAPHICAL ABSTRACT

HIGHLIGHTS

Homemade dog food in Thailand has gained increasing popularity and is widely available in fresh markets, which typically formulated using by-products from slaughter, such as lungs and blood.
Refrigerated storage of dog food may lead to spoilage, which can result in gastrointestinal infections in dogs, moreover may pose a health risk to pet owners who come into contact with the contaminated dog food.
Seasonal variations affect the quality of refrigerated dog food. It is not recommended to stockpile home-cook dog food during the rainy or hot seasons, as it should be consumed on the day of purchase to ensure safety and freshness.

Valorization of crude glycerol into microbial biomass by robust indigenous saccharomyces cerevisiae BK isolates

Nichanun Udomsaksakul — 2026-03-20

The rapid expansion of biodiesel production has generated a significant surplus of crude glycerol, necessitating effective valorization strategies. This study aimed to isolate and characterize indigenous yeast strains with exceptional capacity for utilizing crude glycerol as a primary carbon source for microbial biomass production. Eight robust yeast isolates (BK004–BK015), identified as Saccharomyces cerevisiae (99.8–100% sequence identity), were obtained from tree canopy soil at Rajabhat Rajanagarindra University, Thailand. Growth performance assays revealed the significant uniqueness of these BK strains; they exhibited remarkable biomass accumulation on crude glycerol (29.60–29.90 g L^-1, fresh weight), which was comparable to their growth on glucose. In stark contrast, the reference strain S. cerevisiae TISTR 5596 showed markedly limited growth on glycerol, yielding only 3.80 g L^-1—a nearly 8-fold difference in efficiency. The BK isolates achieved a biomass productivity (Q_x) of 0.61–0.62 g L^-1h^-1and an observed fresh biomass yield (Y_x/s) of 2.97 g g^-1, significantly outperforming the reference strain (Q_x = 0.08 g L^-1h^-1; Y _x/s = 0.38g g^-1). While these isolates produced approximately 40 g L^-1of bioethanol from glucose, bioethanol production from glycerol was not observed under the tested conditions. This limitation is attributed to the intrinsic NADH/NAD⁺ redox imbalance in S. cerevisiae and the requirement for active respiratory activity to drive glycerol metabolism via the oxidative pathway (GUT pathway). Consequently, glycerol utilization in these indigenous strains is predominantly directed toward biomass synthesis rather than fermentative conversion. Overall, the superior performance of the BK isolates underscores the importance of bioprospecting for 'robust' wild-type strains that possess more efficient metabolic pathways for non-fermentable carbon sources than domesticated laboratory strains, offering a promising platform for sustainable industrial biodiesel byproduct valorization.

GRAPHICAL ABSTRACT

HIGHLIGHTS

Eight indigenous Saccharomyces cerevisiae strains were isolated from soil and identified via 26S rDNA sequencing
The isolated strains significantly outperformed the reference strain TISTR 5596 in glycerol utilization.
Glycerol metabolism in BK isolates follows oxidative pathways, favoring biomass production over ethanol fermentation.
The study highlights the potential for valorizing biodiesel-derived crude glycerol into value-added microbial biomass.

Investigation of thermoelectric characteristics of MoS₂ in bulk and thin film structures

Melania Suweni Muntini — 2026-03-10

In this work, we investigated and compared the thermoelectric properties of molybdenum disulfide (MoS₂) in bulk and thin-film structures. The bulk MoS₂ was synthesized by hot pressing (HP) at 700°C from MoS₂nano-powder. While MoS₂ thin film was fabricated via radio-frequency (RF) magnetron sputtering at ambient temperature using a MoS₂ bulk target and then annealed at 700^oC. After bulk and thin-film MoS₂ samples were prepared, the characterization of crystal structure, surface morphology, and atomic composition was performed using X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX), respectively. The electrical resistivity (ρ) and Seebeck coefficient (S) were measured by the ZEM-3 method to determine the thermoelectric power factor (PF). The results revealed that bulk MoS₂exhibited p-type thermoelectricity. In contrast, the MoS₂thin films exhibited n-type thermoelectricity. Among the thermoelectric power factors, the highest power factor of bulk MoS₂was 0.52 mW m⁻¹ K⁻², while the highest power factor of thin film MoS₂ was 3.14 mW m⁻¹ K⁻² at the temperature measurement 473K.

GRAPHICAL ABSTRACT

HIGHLIGHTS

• The microstructure of MoS₂ has differed due to three-dimensional (bulk) and two-dimensional (thin film) to show the hexagonal phase for bulk and 2H for thin film.
• The microstructure of MoS₂ has induced a p-type thermoelectricity on bulk structure and transferred to an n-type thermoelectricity on thin film structure.
• The power factor of MoS₂ thin films was higher than that of bulk MoS₂, indicating superior electrical energy conversion efficiency in the thin-film structure.

Mangrove forest structure and diversity in Tha Kam Island, Bang Pakong Estuary, Chachoengsao Province: implications for conservation and restoration

Sureeporn Thummikkaphong — 2026-04-13

This study evaluated species composition, forest structure, and biodiversity of the natural mangrove area (NA) and the mangrove restoration (RA) areas on Tha Kam Natural Island (13.495873°N, 100.981029°E) in the Bang Pakong estuary, Chachoengsao Province, Thailand. Vegetation surveys were conducted using a systematic line transect method with 10 × 10 m sampling plots established along geomorphological gradients. A total of nine mangrove species were recorded across both sites, including eight tree species and one shrub (Acanthus ilicifolius). The RA exhibited a higher tree density (31.71±19.01 trees per 100 m²) than the NA (21.71±9.54 trees per100 m²). However, the NA showed greater structural maturity, as reflected by a higher basal area (0.41 m² per 100 m²) and greater species diversity (Shannon–Wiener index, H' = 1.140). In contrast, the RA exhibited lower diversity (H' = 0.480) and evenness (J' = 0.268), indicating dominance by Rhizophora mucronata and reflecting an early successional stage. These findings indicate that although reforestation has increased vegetation density, the restored forest still exhibits lower species diversity and limited structural heterogeneity, reflecting an early successional stage. Enhancing these structural and compositional attributes will be essential for strengthening long-term ecosystem resilience and increasing blue carbon sequestration potential in this estuarine mangrove ecosystem.

GRAPHICAL ABSTRACT

HIGHLIGHTS

Natural areas (NA) exhibit significantly higher structural maturity with a basal area of 0.41m²/100m² compared to 0.27m²/100 m² in restored areas (RA).
The Shannon-Wiener Diversity Index (H’) in the NA (1.14) is more than double that of the RA (0.48), indicating greater ecological stability.
Restored areas show higher tree density (71 individuals/100 m²), reflecting uniform, human-restored stand characteristics.
Pioneer species Avicennia and Sonneratia drive active successional recovery in the RA.
Ecological profiles of Tha Kam Island serve as a vital baseline for function-oriented mangrove management and blue carbon accounting.